Introduction:
Adolescence as a likely time for the development of problematic behaviors.
Changes in hormones, external appearance, nature of school, new activities (e.g. dating)
The importance of addressing problematic behaviors during adolescence
reduce suffering for teen, reduce suffering for others, reduce social costs (e.g. antisocial damage)
Fundamental principles
There are no simple answers
Behaviors are influenced by many factors
Different combinations of influences affect different people in different ways
Influences interact and influence each other
Bidirectional influence of factors - shy teen becomes depressed, others
avoid her,
she withdraws into substance abuse
Several problematic behaviors can occur together
different problems may have a common cause - e.g. depression & substance abuse
Behaviors exist on a continuum
most characteristics have a "normal" level, a "slightly problematic" level,
and a
"pathological" level - e.g., use of alcohol
Most behaviors result from decisions made by an adolescent
risky behaviors, lifestyle decisions often result in trouble or pathology among teens
some disorders do not necessarily result from decisions, such as
depression, shyness,
narcissism
Defining problematic behaviors involves value judgments
e.g., use of marijuana, alcohol, shyness
Chapter 2: Designating adolescent behaviors as problematic
focus on ages 12-21
definition: perplexing, requires a solution, difficult, troublesome
we must be careful in deciding to "label"
a teen - can be a self-fulfilling prophesy,
can also haunt the teen for many years, if not forever
can we clearly define problematic behaviors
deviate from the "norm" ?
anorexia - criteria includes 15% or more below expected body weight
age differences - drug experimentation at 10 is different than at age 18
are the behaviors harmful to the person? smoking?
harmful to others? aggression, assault
cultural context - what the culture defines as healthy vs unhealthy
Who decides a behavior is problematic?
society, peers, the teen, and family
ADDITIONAL MATERIAL:
Personality Disorders (PD) in Childhood and Adolescence
4/4/01
Shyness
occurs in social contexts
some physiological and emotional symptoms - anxiety
negative thoughts of self
awkward social behaviors (averting eye contact)
not the same as introversion
shyness is only one type of social anxiety
not just the same as embarrassment
Fearful vs Self-Conscious shyness
fearful begins in the first couple of years of life, self-conscious tends
to begin
in the 4th or 5th (after development of social emotions, such as guilt
and empathy)
Fearful shyness may be more influenced by Temperament (behavioral inhibition)
About 40% of individuals consider themselves shy
More males than females consider themselves shy
Peak shyness often associate with entry into school, beginning of puberty, and entry into junior high
Shyness is probably stable throughout life
THE EXPERIENCE OF SHYNESS
physiological/emotional, cognitive, and behavioral experiences
Physiological/emotional - feeling slightly "sick" in certain situations, flushing, speech difficulties
Cognitive - many self-critical thoughts in social situations, believe they are deficient and ineffective, others are judging him/her
Behavioral - avoid social situations, less adept in social contacts, speak less and more quietly, tend not to initiate conversation, avert eye contact, nervous gestures, migrate to edge of group, more likely to succumb to pressure to change a stated position
Self-Consciousness - reflect on shy experiences and agonize over them
become self-conscious about their self-consciousness
cognitive monitoring lowers social effectiveness even more
DEVELOPMENT
heightened sensitivity to criticism from others
Moderately strong genetic influence exists for shyness - twins
A child born timid is more likely to develop a low level of confidence in social situations
Parents may contribute by focusing
on the importance of paying attention to social scrutiny
and encouraging flawless social skills
Mothers who are more likely to teach
social behaviors in a coercive manner - and are more
embarrassed, angry, and disappointed
when child's social performance is lacking
Shy adolescents are more likely to
attribute their own behavior and others' behavior to
internal causes
lack of social skills is a personal failure
INTERVENTIONS
teaching social skills
teach listening skills - focus on others, not yourself!
attack negative thoughts
get on the horse and ride!
ADDITIONAL MATERIAL:
Personality Disorders (PD) in Childhood and Adolescence
4/6/01
Sensation-seeking, risk-taking, and reckless behaviors
auto accidents, unwanted pregnancies,
autoerotic asphyxiation, train surfing,
spear fishing in shark-infested waters
these kinds of behaviors are at their peak during adolescence
Marvin Zuckerman - sensation-seeking - the need for varied, novel, and complex sensations and experience, willingness to take physical and social risks
Arnett - substantial personal and social costs
risk-taking vs reckless - degree of likelihood of personal or social costs
risk-taking is higher in males than
females at all ages - may be genetic, may be that males
have a naturally lower level of arousal
Gardner - - rational choice - it is more
rational for adolescents to engage in risky behavior
adolescents
are more uncertaint of their futures than adults - when faced with uncertainty,
the rational response is to maximize immediate
benefits at the risk of future and unpredictable
benefits
Thinking styles - more likely than adults to focus on the short-term benefits than the long-term benefits of risks - and less likely to consider the negative, long-term consequences
e.g., condoms, marijuana, sunbathing
related to actually experiencing consequences - less likely to do it again
adolescents with more negative views of the future are MORE likely to take risks
David Elkind - adolescent egocentrism - but the few studies conducted indicate teens feel NO greater immunity from harm than adults
high risk-takers rate the possibility of harm THE SAME as teens who take few risks
Teens influence on each other
groupthink - let's all do it - peer influence is strong - you're a "geek" or afraid if you don't
Alcohol and drugs
clearly promotes risky behavior - logic goes out the window
Benefits
arousal & excitement
sympathetic NS - fight or flight -
Protective frame - where is the line between excitement (arousal)and danger (trauma)?
different cognitive interpretation of the physiology of arousal
fallacious frame - person feels protected when they're not
as such, they don't take necessary precautions - ("This person loves me,
wouldn't
harm me, so I we don't need to use protection.")
teens have less input from others who have experienced harm in certain
situations - parents - and
take advice from other teens (faulty advice)
Natural selection and risky behavior
over the course
of evolution, risky behavior has been selected FOR; taking risks
has OFTEN
ENOUGH been rewarded that it has remained in the gene pool
more advantageous for males - fighting - high esteem of the male group
(why females are attracted to the fighter, the football hero?)
Edgework and the development of the autonomous self
negotiating the boundary between chaos and order
exploring one's limits
fear gives way to a sense of exhiliration - perceptual field becomes focused,
resulting
in a sense of cognitive control over the environment
stimulates a heightened sense of self and feeling of omnipotence
Teens often
feel others are controlling them at a time when they want control - parents,
teachers - so edgework is more rewarding
Interventions
focus on cognitions,
think about consequences - give real experience with the consequences -
visit a hospital and people who have lung cancer
develop strategies
for activities that are risky but don't have the same consequences
April 9, 2001
Chapter 5: Narcissism
self love and self-adoration - normal vs abnormal
narcissists focus almost exclusively on themselves, believing they deserve special treatment, and show little regard for others
often manipulative
grandiose, hostile, selfish facade hides a foundation of inferiority and shame
adolescence is a time of excessive focus on the self
Greek myth; Freud's theory - narcissism is a normal aspect of infancy; when frustrations arise, energy is withdrawn - relating to others only when they are useful for meeting a personal need
Moderate levels of self-focus are healthy - maintain a positive self-image
lower than normal levels of self-regard can result in depression, constant deference to others
higher than normal levels are extremely frustrating to people who must interact with the narcissist
The experience of narcissism
overt and covert aspects
Overt:
self-centeredness, grandiosity, entitlement, exploitativeness, sensitivity
to criticism, hostility,
Covert:
shame, fragile self-worth, dependence on others (for fragile self-worth)
Development of problematic narcissism
disturbed early parent-child relationships - parents who repeatedly evaluate child negatively and use shame to mold child's behavior - children develop fragile self-worth and high levels of shame
narcissistic style protects person from feeling the shame
("we are the all singing, all dancing crap of the world")
"stage parents" - expect their young child to behave in ways that show others that the parents are competent and wonderful
child does this by consistently acting attractive, engaging, charming, and brilliant
child is expected to behave in ways that benefit the parents
as she grows, she learns that she is not loved
by her parents for who she is, but for how she can
reflect on her parents
- how she can make them look good
anger, hostillity, self-doubt, fragile self-worth emerge from this new view of herself and her family
some children become depressed, some become angry, some become narcissistic
child adores herself, since she receives no honest
adoration from parents, and in order to protect her
fragile self-concept
Interventions
Obstacle - they don't believe they need intervention
believe the problems they encounter are the fault of others
therapists should NOT challenge the adolescent's view of herself and the world
they meet challenges with defensive hostility
Rather, therapist should gently explore the hurt
and anger the adolescent experiences
at the hands of others
- later, help the teen explore her fears about her self-worth - as she
learns to tolerate self-doubts,
she can be encouraged to see how they influence her
interactions with others
- therapist is dealing with the covert characteristics
Chapter 10 - Physical Aggression
Aggression is promoted in many contexts in our society.
Adolescents are expected to turn it on and off quickly in certain situations (e.g., football)
Official reports (police) underestimate levels of aggression - only 15-30% of aggressive offenses result in an arrest, and arrests typically occur after a person has a history of aggression
Self-reports show higher levels of aggression, but even then most people, including adolescents, underreport
Minority youth are more likely to be arrested
Definition - behavior designed to harm another
Predatory aggression = instrumental aggression : meant to harm another (low level of fear, arousal)
Affective aggression = reactive aggression : defend oneself (high level of fear, arousal)
Most adolescents engage in both types of aggression
Relative rates of aggression across age is fairly stable
Pathways
longitudinal research shows:
1. normal aggression early, then decline (most common)
2. consistent aggression over time (socialization may not work as well with them)
3. early onset and increase over time (socializaton may not work, and they may be physiologically more prone)
4. late onset (early inhibition, then lessening of inhibition, e.g., Mike Tyson)
Influences:
Biology - some people more prone, but the environment
can influence biology
(stress increases testosterone)
Number of risk factors (stressors in environment) are predictive of aggression
Genetic influences are unclear
Perhaps there is a genetic influence on impulsivity and emotional reactivity
Temperament - uninhibited - less responsive to reinforcement/punishment - seek out risky endeavors
Testosterone - inhibits neurotransmitters that
inhibit impulsiveness - social dominance (higher
in
hierarchy): leaders have
higher levels of testosterone, but not necessarily higher aggression -
boys
lower in the hierarchy
may be more aggressive but don't have higher levels of testosterone - social
dominance related to
testosterone, but physical size was predictive of aggression
CB:
It may be that pheromones released by males with higher levels of
testosterone are perceived
by other males - allowing high T males to ascend to the highest positions
in the dominance
hierarchy without having to be as aggressive
Other research shows that after, not before competitive situations, testosterone is higher
Damage to the hypothalamus, amygdala, and prefrontal cortex have been associated with higher levels of aggression
Low levels of alcohol are disinhibitory
Repeated child abuse may grow more neurons that serve to process fear and anger - so these people are simply more prone to think of or respond to aggression in the environment
Different effect for boys and girls, however: boys show increased arousal, girls decreased arousal (sounds like tendency for males to externalize anger, while females internalize anger)
Animal models: expose young hamsters to aggression from adult males, they are later inhibited in relations with older males but more aggressive with same age males
Culture can promote or inhibit aggression
Coercive family dynamics: some parents withdraw discipline when children are aggressive - teaches children that's how you get your way
Levels of corporal punishment by parents predicts aggression in children - even as young as 2 years of age
abused children expect others to be abusive toward them - hypersensitive
TV affects aggression about 10% - same % as the influence of smoking on developing cancer
frustration leads to higher aggression
Interventions:
Legal (usually don't work)
In-home family counseling (effective)
Individual cognitive techniques - don't try to
eliminate feelings, but change actions - shown effective
what is consensual?
some estimate that 50-60% of adolescent girls have had such an experience
26% of college males admit to using coercion
Malicious sexual coercion - knowingly coercive -
one theory suggests coercion is about domination over women (or men) (aggression is the goal)
a second theory suggests sexual gratification is the goal
a third theory suggests
some men (women?) are motivated to have sex that is aggressive/coercive
(or, both are the goal)
Some argue men are biologically more prone to be sexually coercive, due to the stronger control testosterone has over sex drive and behaviors
Attitudes of male superiority over women - degradation of women - women want sex even when they say they don't - consequences aren't that bad
adolescents frequently endorse
the statement: it is ok for a man to coerce a woman if they have
been dating at least
6 months
Men whose peers place a high value on sexual prowess
Growing up in families where sexual or physical abuse occurred
Pornography: repeated exposure to sexually aggressive movies increases likelihood of sexual aggression
Can distinguish between males in college who are more aroused when viewing a woman being physically assaulted
Also, rapists become more aroused when listening to audiotapes of rapes
Alcohol use increases likelihood of sexual coercion
But, only about 1/2 of the cases of rape occur when alcohol is involved
Sexually coercive male is motivated to have frequent sex, perceives barriers to having sex as often as he likes, and has attitudes that allow him to justify coercion
The "domination" male is likely to have experienced abuse or witnessed frequent abuse in his home
May be primarily angry, and it is easier to take it out on women
Men who want "aggressive sex" may have experienced poor socialization
- lack appropriate social skills
Miscommunication / non-malicious coercion:
Many men misinterpret female cues and signals
Many males - not just
those who become coercive - perceive females to be interested in sex based
on
a broad range of characterstics and behaviors
The length of time of
a sexual encounter does predict whether or not it will result in sexual
coercion
- letting it go on a long time makes it more likely that sex will occur
Cultural beliefs in the responsibility of males to initiate sexual encounters
Prevention & Treatment:
educational programs: low effectiveness
Aversive conditioning: controversial effectiveness
Unfortunately, this chapter did not address some key issues regarding adolescent sexuality that are important:
Adolescents are just learning how to deal with their sexual abilities and desires.
Understanding NO when a woman says no, to the adolescent, is probably more
difficult
than it is for an adult (or, a typical adult)
Adolescents are LESS likely to evaluate negative consequences as being
negative (we knew this
already from the topic "risk-taking")
Adolescents are LESS likely to be in control of what their hormones are telling them to do
Adolescents are MORE likely to need approval of others, and males will
definitely brag about
sexual conquests to their peers to improve their status and reputation
Adolescent girls may be LESS likely to feel physically capable of warding
off an advance from
an adolescent male whose physical strength is likely far above hers
Adolescent girls are sometimes MORE likely to believe that coercion isn't
coercion - they
don't know better because in some situations they haven't talked about
it enough with
people who have the correct information
And in some cases, adolescent girls are MORE likely to accept coercion
because she wants
to be liked by the male - pressure to have a partner
ALL of the above are MORE likely during early and middle adolescence than
late adolescence (college)